Trichuris trichiura is a soil-transmitted helminth which is prevalent in warm, moist, tropical and subtropical regions of the world with poor sanitation. Heavy whipworm can result either in Trichuris dysenteric syndrome - especially in children - or in a chronic colitis. In heavy infections, worms can spread proximally and may cause ileitis. Here we provide first microscopic evidence for a T. trichiura adult worm embedded in the rectum of a post-Colonial Brazilian adult mummy. During Colonial and post-Colonial times, many European chroniclers described a parasitic disease named Maculo whose symptomatology coincides with heavy helminthiasis. Based on our findings and on comparison of ancient textual evidence with modern description of heavy whipworm, we feel confident in considering that the two syndromes are expressions of the same pathological condition.

Paleoparasitological research has made important contributions to the understanding of parasite evolution and ecology. Although parasitic protozoa exhibit a worldwide distribution, recovering these organisms from an archaeological context is still exceptional and relies on the availability and distribution of evidence, the ecology of infectious diseases and adequate detection techniques. Here, we present a review of the findings related to protozoa in ancient remains, with an emphasis on their geographical distribution in the past and the methodologies used for their retrieval. The development of more sensitive detection methods has increased the number of identified parasitic species, promising interesting insights from research in the future.

We present the results of paleoparasitological analyses in coprolites of Kerodon rupestris, rodent endemic to rocky areas of Brazil's semiarid region. The coprolites were collected from excavations at the archaeological site of Toca dos Coqueiros, in the National Park of Serra da Capivara, southeastern of state of Piauí. Syphacia sp. (Nematoda: Oxyuridae) eggs were identified in coprolites dated at 5,300 ± 50 years before present. This is the first record of the genus Syphacia in rodent coprolites in the Americas.

We present results of the paleoparasitological analysis of Cervidae coprolites that were recovered from the archaeological site Furna do Estrago, Pernambuco, Brazil. Trichuris sp. eggs were recovered from the coprolite samples dated 1,040 ± 50 years before present. This is the first record of Trichuris sp. in semiarid Cervidae, unexpectedly recorded in archaeological material.

Some human parasites originated in prehominid ancestors in Africa. Nematode species, such as Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm), hookworms and Trichuris trichiura are shared by humans and other close phylogenetic primates (Pan and Gorilla), showing that they infected a common ancestor to this group. When humans migrated from Africa to other continents they carried these parasites wherever climate conditions allowed parasite transmission from host to host. Other parasites, however, were acquired throughout human biological and social evolutive history when new territories were occupied. Paleoparasitology data is a valuable source to recover emergence and disappearance of parasite infections through analysis of archaeological remains. Parasites can be used as biological markers of prehistoric human migrations. They are also indicators of diet, as parasite life cycles are related to specific kinds of food consumed by human groups in the different habitats they occupied. We review paleoparasitological findings in South America, comparing human-host and intestinal parasites with life conditions and environmental relationships through time.

Algunos parásitos humanos se originaron en ancestrales prehomínidos de Africa. Especies de nemátodos tales como Enterobius vermicularis y Trichuris trichiura son compartidos por los humanos y otros primates filogenéticamente emparentados (Pan and Gorilla), lo cual indica que tales parásitos antiguamente infectaron a un ancestro común de estos grupos. Cuando los humanos migraron desde Africa a otros continentes, llevaron consigo parásitos a lugares donde las condiciones climáticas permitieran su transmisión de huésped a huésped. Sin embargo, otros parásitos fueron adquiridos a través de la historia evolutiva humana biológica y social, durante la ocupación de nuevos territorios. Las evidencias paleoparasitológicas, encontradas a través del análisis de material arqueológico, son una fuente valiosa para recuperar información de infecciones parasitarias emergentes y desaparecidas. Los parásitos pueden ser usados como marcadores biológicos de migraciones humanas prehistóricas. Además de esto, son indicadores de dieta, debido a que los ciclos de vida parasitarios están relacionados con ciertos alimentos que fueron consumidos por grupos humanos en los diferentes hábitats ocupados. El objetivo de esta revisión bibliográfica es reunir los hallazgos paleoparasitológicos en Sudamérica y comparar la relación huésped humano y parásitos intestinales con condiciones de vida y relaciones ambientales a través del tiempo.

A hipótese clássica sobre a origem da doença de Chagas propõe que tenha surgido entre as populações pré-históricas dos Andes quando começaram a domesticar animais, mudaram para hábitos sedentários e adotaram a agricultura. Estas mudanças em seus hábitos de vida aconteceram há aproximadamente 6.000 anos. Entretanto, os dados da paleoparasitologia, baseados na biologia molecular, mostraram que a infecção por Trypanosoma cruzi e a doença de Chagas eram comuns tanto em populações pré-históricas da América do Sul e América do Norte muito antes deste período. De acordo com os dados paleoparasitológicos, a doença de Chagas pode ser tão antiga quanto a presença humana no continente americano. O estudo sobre a origem e dispersão da infecção por Trypanosoma cruzi entre populações humanas pré-históricas pode auxiliar na compreensão de questões clínicas e epidemiológicas sobre a doença de Chagas que ainda permanecem sem resposta.

The classical hypothesis proposes that Chagas disease has been originated in the Andean region among prehistoric people when they started domesticating animals, changing to sedentary habits, and adopting agriculture. These changes in their way of life happened nearly 6,000 years ago. However, paleoparasitological data based on molecular tools showed that Trypanosoma cruzi infection and Chagas disease were commonly found both in South and North American prehistoric populations long before that time, suggesting that Chagas disease may be as old as the human presence in the American continent. The study of the origin and dispersion of Trypanosoma cruzi infection among prehistoric human populations may help in the comprehension of the clinical and epidemiological questions on Chagas disease that still remain unanswered.

Current clinical data show a clear relationship between the zoonosis rates of Diphyllobothrium pacificum and Anisakis caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillations (ENSO) phenomenon along the Chilean coast. These parasites are endemic to the region and have a specific habitat distribution. D. pacificum prefers the warmer waters in the northern coast, while Anisakis prefers the colder waters of Southern Chile. The ENSO phenomenon causes a drastic inversion in the seawater temperatures in this region, modifying both the cool nutrient-rich seawater and the local ecology. This causes a latitudinal shift in marine parasite distribution and prevalence, as well as drastic environmental changes. The abundance of human mummies and archaeological coastal sites in the Atacama Desert provides an excellent model to test the ENSO impact on antiquity. We review the clinical and archaeological literature debating to what extent these parasites affected the health of the Chinchorros, the earliest settlers of this region. We hypothesise the Chinchorro and their descendants were affected by this natural and cyclical ENSO phenomenon and should therefore present fluctuating rates of D. pacificum and Anisakis infestations.

One hundred years since the discovery of Chagas disease associated with Trypanosoma cruzi infection, growing attention has focused on understanding the evolution in parasite-human host interaction. This interest has featured studies and results from paleoparasitology, not only the description of lesions in mummified bodies, but also the recovery of genetic material from the parasite and the possibility of analyzing such material over time. The present study reviews the evidence of Chagas disease in organic remains excavated from archeological sites and discusses two findings in greater detail, both with lesions suggestive of chagasic megacolon and confirmed by molecular biology techniques. One of these sites is located in the United States, on the border between Texas and Mexico and the other in state of Minas Gerais, in the Brazilian cerrado (savannah). Dated prior to contact with Europeans, these results confirm that Chagas disease affected prehistoric human groups in other regions outside the Andean altiplanos and other transmission areas on the Pacific Coast, previously considered the origin of T. cruzi infection in the human host.

São revistos os registros de ocorrência de helmintos intestinais parasitos de animais em vestígios arqueológicos humanos, relatados desde o surgimento dos estudos paleopatológicos. Busca-se relacionar os achados em paleoparasitologia com fatores geográficos, bióticos e abióticos do ambiente em que as populações pré-históricas viviam, e com aspectos do processo de dispersão e evolução biológica e cultural humana. A modificação de hábitos alimentares e a incorporação de novas práticas culturais são analisadas sob o ponto de vista das zoonoses desde a pré-história até a atualidade, em especial em populações indígenas brasileiras. Três tabelas identificando os helmintos, seus hospedeiros naturais, datações e local dos achados arqueológicos complementam esta revisão. Conclui-se que várias zoonoses conhecidas hoje ocorrem desde a antiguidade e que estes dados, combinados a estudos de emergência e reemergência de doenças, podem auxiliar a compor cenários para o futuro.

The authors present a review of records of intestinal parasitic helminths from animals in human archaeological remains, reported since the emergence of paleopathological studies. The objective was to relate paleoparasitological findings to geographic, biotic, and abiotic factors from the environment in which the prehistoric populations lived, and understand some aspects related to the process of human dispersion and biological and cultural evolution. Modification of eating habits and the incorporation of new cultural practices are analyzed from the perspective of zoonoses from prehistory to the present day, especially in Brazilian indigenous populations. Three tables identifying the helminths, their natural hosts, dates, and sites of archaeological findings complete this review. In conclusion, various zoonoses known today have occurred since antiquity, and these data, combined with studies on the emergence and reemergence of diseases, could make possible to compose scenarios for the future.

Se reportan los resultados de un estudio transversal llevado a cabo en 2005 sobre la epidemiología del parasitismo intestinal en indios Suruí de la amazonia brasilera. Un total de 519 muestras de heces fueron examinadas por flotación en sulfato de zinc y sedimentación en etil-éter. Muestras positivas para Entamoeba histolytica/E. dispar fueron testeadas por ELISA. Una o más especies de helmintos estuvieron presentes en 36% de los sujetos y 70,7% presentaron al menos una especie de protozoario. El helminto más frecuente fue Hymenolepis nana (29,5%). Los nematodos fueron escasos (anquilostomo= 3,3%; Strongyloides stercoralis= 0.2%). Se identificó Capillaria sp. en 5,2% de las muestras y se detectó un caso de parasitismo por Dipylidium caninum. Las prevalencias de Giardia duodenalis y E. histolytica/E. dispar fueron 16,2% y 12,3%, respectivamente. Según ELISA la prevalencia de infección por E. histolytica fue 3,2%. La prevalencia de infección por nematodos fue sorpresivamente baja en comparación con reportes frecuentes en otras poblaciones indígenas de la amazonia brasilera. Se argumenta que los cambios en la prevalencia de helmintiasis en los Suruí se asocian a tratamientos masivos con antihelmínticos llevados a cabo por el servicio de salud de indígenas, en ausencia de otras medidas. Se propone que un programa especial orientado a controlar el parasitismo intestinal en poblaciones indígenas debe desligarse de la distribución de medicación, sino ser diseñado en colaboración con los habitantes locales, abarcando educación, mejores viviendas y sistemas de drenaje y disposición de residuos, y suministro de agua segura a todos los pobladores.

This study reports the results of a cross-sectional survey carried out in 2005 to investigate the epidemiology of intestinal parasitism among the Suruí Indians, Brazilian Amazon. A total of 519 stool samples were examined by zinc-sulphate-flotation and formol-ether-sedimentation. Entamoeba histolytica/E. dispar-positive samples were further tested by ELISA. Thirty-six percent of the subjects were positive for one more helminth species; 70.7% harbored at least one protozoan species. The most frequent helminth was Hymenolepis nana (29.5%). Nematodes were rare (hookworm= 3.3%; Strongyloides stercoralis= 0.2%). Capillaria sp. was identified in 5.2% of the samples and one case of parasitism by Dipylidium caninum was detected. Prevalence of Giardia duodenalis and E. histolytica/E. dispar was 16.2% and 12.3%, respectively. Based on ELISA, the prevalence of E. histolytica infection was 3.2%. The overall prevalence of intestinal nematode infections depicted in this study was surprisingly low compared to what is often reported for other indigenous populations in the Brazilian Amazon. It is argued that the prevalence of helminths in the Suruí are associated with anthelminthic mass treatment schemes undertaken by the Indian health service, in the absence of other measures. The authors propose that a special program aimed at controlling intestinal parasitism in indigenous communities should step beyond the top-down distribution of medication, but rather be designed in collaboration with the target population, encompassing education, better housing, alternative sewage disposal systems and safe water supply to all villagers.

Este trabalho apresenta os resultados de um estudo seccional conduzido em 2005 que visou investigar o perfil epidemiológico das parasitoses intestinais entre os índios Suruí, localizados em Rondôna, Amazônia brasileira. Um total de 519 amostras fecais foi examinado pelas técnicas de flutuação com sulfato de zinco e sedimentação com formol-éter. Amostras positivas para Entamoeba histolytica/E. díspar foram posteriormente testadas pelo método ELISA. Trinta e seis por cento dos indivíduos encontravam-se positivos para pelo menos uma espécie de helminto; 70,7% abrigavam pelo menos uma espécie de protozoário. O helminto mais freqüente foi Hymenolepis nana (29,5%). Nematódeos foram raros (ancilostomídeos= 3,3%; Strongyloides stercoralis= 0,2%). Capillaria sp. foi identificado em 5,2% das amostras e um caso de parasitismo por Dipylidium caninum foi observado. As prevalências de Giardia duodenalis e E. histolytica/E. dispar foram de 16,2% e 12,3%, respectivamente. Baseada no teste ELISA, a prevalência de infecção por E. histolytica foi de 3,2%. A prevalência total de infecção intestinal por nematódeos demonstrada neste estudo foi surpreendentemente baixa se comparada ao que tem sido geralmente reportado para outras populações indígenas da Amazônia brasileira. Argumenta-se que a baixa prevalência de helmintos entre os Suruí está em larga medida associada a esquemas de tratamento em massa com anti-helmínticos dispensados pelo serviço de saúde indígena. Os autores propõem que um programa especial destinado ao controle de parasitoses intestinais em comunidades indígenas deve ir além da distribuição de medicamentos. Preferencialmente, deve ser planejado em colaboração com a população alvo, considerando aspectos educacionais e visando a melhoria nas moradias e no sistema de esgoto e de fornecimento de água.

Discriminant analysis was used to identify eggs of Capillaria spp. at specific level found in organic remains from an archaeological site in Patagonia, Argentina, dated of 6,540 ± 110 years before present. In order to distinguish eggshell morphology 149 eggs were measured and grouped into four arbitrary subsets. The analysis used on egg width and length discriminated them into different morphotypes (Wilks' lambda = 0.381, p < 0.05). The correlation analysis suggests that width was the most important variable to discriminate among the Capillaria spp. egg morphotypes (Pearson coefficient = 0.950, p < 0.05). The study of eggshell patterns, the relative frequency in the sample, and the morphometric data allowed us to correlate the four morphotypes with Capillaria species.